Methylene blue (MB) is a thiazine dye that has recently attracted a significant attention of researchers because of its newly discovered biological activities. Ozone, both in its gaseous form and dissolved in water, can be used to remove difenoconazole and linuron from carrots 68. 1,8-Naphthalic anhydride is a potential antidote against fungicides 67. Pralidoxime and vitamin K are antidotes of organophosphorus insecticides and anticoagulant rodenticides, respectively 66. Magnesium sulfate can be used for managing the poisoning with organophosphorus pesticides 64 and aluminum phosphide 65. Lysine acetylsalicylate significantly decreases paraquat toxicity in mammals 56.Ītropine alleviates pesticide poisoning 57, 58, 59, 60, while oximes act as antidotes against specific pesticides 59, 61, 62, 63. Sucralfate 54 and ellagic acid 55 can also prevent the toxicity of paraquat. It was found that glucocorticoids and cyclophosphamide significantly alleviate the toxic effects of paraquat, an efficient herbicide used worldwid 53. However, the number of such antidotes is very limited. Hence, the use of inexpensive and available antidotes against pesticides can be one of the solutions for the problem of pesticide toxicity in pollinators, first of all, bumble bees and honey bees. Some fungicides inhibit mitochondrial respiration and uncouple oxidative phosphorylation in the bumble bee flight muscles 51.Īt the same time, improving mitochondrial functions can reduce the toxic effect of non-mitochondrial pesticides on bumble bees 52. For example, thiacloprid alters transcription of genes associated with oxidative phosphorylation 50. Organochloride pesticides also can damage mitochondria 49. Pyrethroids can impair various mitochondrial functions, disrupt formation of the mitochondrial membrane potential, increase production of reactive oxygen species, alter the fluidity of the mitochondrial membrane lipids, and cause the damage of mitochondrial DNA 48. Organophosphate pesticides often cause oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction 47. Fipronil and imidacloprid influence multiple functional parameters of bee mitochondria and reduce the activity of these organelles 46. Fungicide Pristine ® inhibits mitochondrial function in honeybees 45. Many non-mitochondrial pesticides can also affect the activity of mitochondria. Some pesticides, e.g., pro-insecticide chlorfenapyr, uncouple oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria, which reduces the efficiency of this process and leads to the energy loss in the cells 44. Insecticides/acaricides fenazaquin 24, tolfenpyrad, and pyridaben 42, 43 inhibit Complex 1. For example, insecticide hydramethylnon inhibits the activity of Complex 3 40, 41. Some pesticides target mitochondria and reduce the efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation, e.g., by inhibiting the electron transport chain (ETC) complexes. Pesticides affect insect reproduction, behavior, and development of bumble bee colonies 38.Thus, pesticides are believed to the most significant deleterious factor in the colony collapse disorder 39. Among pesticides neonicotinoids are often blamed for the loss of bees 32, 33, whereas fungicides can promote the effect of these pesticides on pollinators 34, 35, 36, 37. The synergistic effect of pesticides and pathogens may be the a major factor in the global decline of pollinators 30, 31. The reasons for the loss of pollinating insects include habitat destruction 15, 16, 17, various pathogens, e.g., such as viruses 18, 19 and Varroa mites 20, 21, 22, climate change 23, 24, 25, reduced food supply 26, 27, 28, and global use of pesticides 21, 23, 26, 27, 29, 30. The populations of bumble bees have considerably declined in the North America, Europe, and other world regions 8, 9, 10, presumably because of the toxic effects of pesticides 11, 12, 13, 14. Bumble bees are among the most important pollinators 6 that are also commonly used in agriculture ( Bombus impatiens, Bombus ignitus, and Bombus terrestris) 7. A decline in the population of pollinators is a serious worldwide problem 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 that has become a question of humankind biological safety.
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